==Social cognitive theory [社會認知理論]

**社會認知理論(Social Cognitive Theory, SCT)** 認為個人在社會中的行動與舉止，都是透過對社會中他人行為的觀察而學習來的。即，個人知識與行為的學習，乃是透過自我激勵與自我調整(self-regulatory)機制，在社會互動、經驗的情境中，依據自己對他者的觀察，而自我建構(modeling)所習得的。而非受到教學內容素材與媒體的影響。

此理論提供一個包含人、行為、環境的三角模型架構。在此架構中包含許多概念，其中最為Bandura強調的是自我效能([[:Self-efficacy]])。自我效能類似自信類似，是一種基於認為自己具有能力以完成任務的信念。[自我效力可以應用在健康的議題上，例如研究自我效力與醫療效果的關係。?]

與社會認知的區別: \\ 社會認知理論(Social Cognitive Theory, SCT) 與社會心理學中的社會認知([[:social cognition]]) 並不完全相同。SCT 專指由[[:people:Albert Bandura|A. Bandura]] 所發展出來的理論。

應用: \\ 教育、心理學、傳播與行銷、公共健康，等等。





=== 歷史與起源 
[[:people:N.E. Miller]]與[[:people:J. Dollard]]最早在1941年提出社會學習與想像理論，該理論認為人類對特定行為的學習是透過觀察。藉由模仿所觀察的行為，觀察者會固化所習得的行為，並獲得一正面強化(reinforcement)(Miller & Dollard, 1941)。]

此一社會學習命題由[[:people:Albert Bandura]]與 Walters (1962)在《社會學習與個型發展 (Social Learning and Personality Development)》一書中得到進一步的擴充與理論化。即提出了 observational learning and vicarious reinforcement。

1977 年 Bandura 出版 "Self-efficacy: Toward a Unifying Theory of Behavioral Change"，正式提出 self-efficacy。

1986 年 Bandura 出版 "Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory"，提出cognitive, vicarious, self-regulatory, and self-reflective processes 對人類行為變化與調適的影響。建立其社會認知理論。People are viewed as self-organizing, proactive, self-reflecting and self-regulating rather than as reactive organisms shaped and shepherded by environmental forces or driven by concealed inner impulses. From this theoretical perspective, human functioning is viewed as the product of a dynamic interplay of personal, behavioral, and environmental influences.

建立完理論架構之後， Bandura 陸續發展出許多個人行為的面向，其中許多回歸到自律、自我效力(自信)等議題。


===Inhibitory and Disinhibitory Effects|抑制與非抑制效果===
觀察者的觀察結果會受到兩種不同的影響。當觀察者看到他人在某種社會情勢中的因為其行為被懲罰時，會產生一種抑制效果([[inhibitory effect]])。而一個非抑制效果([[disinhibitory effect]])，則是當行為受到讚揚時，觀察者在對此行為學習的想像中的強化(reinforcement)活動(Miller, 2005)。替代強化([[Vicarious reinforcement]])解釋 當觀察者雖未預期經驗實際回報或懲罰，但預估想像的行為中以上的效果會有類似的結果。這部份的社會認知理論相當依靠結果預期理論([[outcome expectancies]])。





=== 重要概念 
(Source: Glanz et al, 2002, p169.)

環境(Environment): 個人外在的物理性因素。提供機會與社會支援。\\ <fs 50%>Factors physically external to the person; Provides opportunities and social support.</fs>

情勢(Situation): 對環境的感知。修正感知錯誤並提供健康的形式。\\ <fs 50%>Perception of the environment; correct misperceptions and promote healthful forms.</fs>

行為能力(Behavioral capability): 執行行為的知識與能力。透過技巧訓練精熟學習。\\ <fs 50%>Knowledge and skill to perform a given behavior; promote mastery learning through skills training.</fs>

期望(Expectations): 行為的預期產出。建立行為的正面結果。\\ <fs 50%>Anticipatory outcomes of a behavior; Model positive outcomes of healthful behavior.</fs>

期待(Expectancies): 個人對結果的預定評價，激勵。\\ <fs 50%>The values that the person places on a given outcome, incentives; Present outcomes of change that have functional meaning.</fs>

自律(Self-control): 規律化個人達成目標的行為。提供自我檢視、目標設定、問題解決、與自我獎勵的機會。\\ <fs 50%>Personal regulation of goal-directed behavior or performance; Provide opportunities for self-monitoring, goal setting, problem solving, and self-reward.</fs>

觀察學習(Observational learning): 透過觀察他人行為與結果，包含目標行為的可信賴角色模型，以習得行為。\\ <fs 50%>Behavioral acquisition that occurs by watching the actions and outcomes of others’ behavior; Include credible role models of the targeted behavior.</fs>

強化(Reinforcements): 回應 [增強或減弱 再次出現事件的相似性的 個人行為]。促進自我啟動回饋與激勵。\\ <fs 50%>Responses to a person’s behavior that increase or decrease the likelihood of reoccurrence; Promote self-initiated rewards and incentives.</fs>

自我效能([[:Self-efficacy]]): 個人對能夠完成特定工作的能力的自信心。\\ <fs 50%>The person’s confidence in performing a particular behavior; Approach behavioral change in small steps to ensure success.</fs>


情感處理回應(Emotional coping responses): 個人用來處理情感刺激的策略或內隱技巧。提供問題解學與壓力管理的訓練。 \\ <fs 50%>Strategies or tactics that are used by a person to deal with emotional stimuli; provide training in problem solving and stress management.</fs>

互惠決定論(Reciprocal determinism): 在行為發生時，考慮到多重手段以改變行為，其個人、行為、與環境的動態互動。此多重手段包括環境改變、技巧改變、與個人改變。\\ <fs 50%>The dynamic interaction of the person, the behavior, and the environment in which the behavior is performed; consider multiple avenues to behavioral change, including environmental, skill, and personal change.</fs>


===Identification and Self-Efficacy|認同與自我效能===
社會認知理論認為，當在觀察者與模式間有一緊密的認同(identification)存在，並且觀察者也能妥善的處理其自我效能([[self-efficacy]])時，學習更可能發生。在動機、認知與情感的交織歷程中，自我效能是人類動機、情感、行為基礎斷定的重要集合(Bandura, 1989)。認同可以使觀察者與另一人在想像中感覺到一種一對一的連結關係，並如果觀察者覺得他有這種能力可以進行想像中的活動，他將更可能將這些想像實現(Bandura, 1988)。  

Bandura 於 1977 進一步提出自我效能(self-efficacy)的概念，以反駁傳統學習理論中的理解學習。


"people's judgments of their capabilities to organize and execute courses of action required to attain designated types of performances"



== References
* Wikipedia [[wp>Social_cognitive_theory]]
* Miwa, M. (2005). Bandura's Social Cognition. In K. E. Fisher, S. Erdelez & L. McKechnie (Eds.), Theories of information behavior (pp. 54-57). Medford, N.J. : Information Today.


===References (忘了哪裡來的?)

* Bandura. A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84, 191-215.
* Bandura, A. (1978a). Reflections on self-efficacy. Advances in Behavioural Research and Therapy, 1, 237-269.
* Bandura, A. (1978b). The self system in reciprocal determinism. American Psychologist, 33, 344-358.
* Bandura. A. (1982). Self-efficacy mechanism in human agency. American Psychologist, 37, 122-147.
* Bandura, A. (1984). Recycling misconceptions of perceived self-efficacy. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 8, 231-255.
* Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
* Bandura, A. (1988). Organizational Application of Social Cognitive Theory. Australian Journal of Management, 13(2), 275-302. 
* Bandura, A. (1989). Human agency in social cognitive theory. American Psychologist, 44, 1175-1184. ★★
* Bandura, A. (1991). Social cognitive theory of self-regulation. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50, 248-287.
* Bandura, A. (1993). Perceived self-efficacy in cognitive development and functioning. Educational Psychologist, 28, 117-148.
* Bandura, A. (Ed.) (1995). Self-efficacy in changing societies. New York: Cambridge University Press.
* Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: Freeman.
* Bandura, A. (2001). Social cognitive theory: An agentive perspective. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 1-26.
* Bussey, K., & Bandura, A. (1999). Social cognitive theory of gender development and differentiation. Psychology Review, 106, 676-713.
* Graham, S., & Weiner, B. (1996). Theories and principles of motivation. In D. C. Berliner & R. C. Calfee (Eds.). Handbook of educational psychology (pp. 63-84). New York: Simon & Schuster Macmillan.
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* Miller, N. E., & Dollard, J. (1941). Social learning and imitation. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ★★
* Miller, Katherine (2005). Communication Theories: Perspectives, Processes, and Contexts (2nd ed.). New York, New York: McGraw-Hill.
* Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66, 543-578.
* Pajares, F. (1997). Current directions in self-efficacy research. In M. Maehr & P. R. Pintrich (Eds.). Advances in motivation and achievement (Vol. 10, pp. 1-49). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
* Pajares (2002). Overview of social cognitive theory and of self-efficacy. Retreived month day, year, from http://www.emory.edu/EDUCATION/mfp/eff.html ★
* Pajares, F., & Schunk, D. H. (2001). Self-beliefs and school success: Self-efficacy, self-concept, and school achievement. In R. Riding & S. Rayner (Eds.), Self-perception (pp. 239-266). London: Ablex Publishing.
* Schunk, D. H. (1991). Self-efficacy and academic motivation. Educational Psychologist, 26, 207-231.
* Schunk, D. H., & Pajares, F. (2002). The development of academic self-efficacy. In A. Wigfield & J. Eccles (Eds.), Development of achievement motivation (pp. 16-31). San Diego: Academic Press.
* Stajkovic, A. D., & Luthans, F. (1998). Self-efficacy and work-related performances: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 124, 240-261.
* Zimmerman, B. J., & Schunk, D. H. (in press). Albert Bandura: The man and his contributions to educational psychology. In Zimmerman, B. J., & Schunk, D. H. (Eds.). Educational psychology: A century of contributions. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.


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