translate form http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concept_map

==Concept map [概念圖]==

**Concept mapping[概念圖繪製]** 是將各種不同概念與其關係視覺化([[Visualization]])的一種技巧，概念圖是呈現概念間關係的圖解(diagram)。在概念圖中，標名(labelled)的箭頭線段連結各個概念，箭頭的方向表示往下發展的層次。這些線段的名稱會像是：「引發」、「導致」、「需要」、「提供」等等。

==Development==
[[:people:Joseph D. Novak]]於1970年代，在康乃爾大學(Cornell University)發展出概念圖繪製技巧。當時，Novak 將這種技巧應用在科學教學上，做為一種增進理解的教學技術。Novak 的設計是基於[[:people:David Ausubel]]的理論([[assimilation theory]])。Ausubel 在此理論中，強調建構式教學([[constructivism learning]])的觀點，認為先前知識(prior knowledge)是學習新知識的基礎框架(framework)，並有不可取代的重要性。在 Novak 的著作 //Learning to Learn// 中，指出「有意義的學習，涉及將新概念與命題的同化(assimilation)入既有的認知架構中。」

===運用===
概念圖被認為有助於創意發想。例如，概念圖繪製有時被用作為腦力激盪(brain-storming)的工具。雖然概念圖通常是非常個人化且個殊的，但是也會被用在複雜概念的溝通工作中。

形式化的概念圖也被用在軟體設計工作中。通常這種概念圖會以[[UML|Unified Modeling Language(UML)]]的圖示系統作為開發方法中的表記系統。

在人工智慧與語意網路之類的研究中，概念圖繪製也被視為一種初階的「本體建構(ontology-building)」以表徵形式化的論證(formal argument)。

概念圖被廣泛的運用在教育與企業領域：

* 在文獻與相關資料來源中，進行筆記([[Note taking]])與歸納關鍵概念、其關係與階層。
* 創造新知識內容。例如，將內隱知識轉換為有組織的知識資源。
* 機構知識保存。例如，引出員工的專業知識。
* 協同知識塑模(collaborative knowledge modeling)
* 促進願景分享與組織間的互相理解
* 教學設計：被 Ausubelian 學派用作為進階組織工具，以提供後續資訊與學習的初始概念架構。 
* 訓練：被 Ausubelian 學派用作為進階組織工具，以呈現工作情境，以及情境與其工作、組織的策略目的、與訓練目標的關係。
* 增進有意義的學習
* 溝通複雜概念與論題
* 檢驗複雜概念與論題的對稱性，以及術語聯結
* 詳述觀點的整體結構，串聯思想，或描繪論點，讓他人檢視。
* 增強後設認知  
* 改善語言能力
* 評估學習者對學習動機、概念與概念間關係的理解程度


===與心智圖(mind map)的差別===
概念圖與心智圖([[mind map]])是類似的圖式工具，但是仍然有差別

心智圖通常會受到其階層(樹狀)架構的限制。

有研究證據顯示，知識在腦中是以命題為基本單位，採階層式儲存的。因為概念地圖的目的是反映知識元素的組織，因此能有助於理解(sense-making)與進行有意義的學習。

Concept maps were developed to enhance meaningful learning in the sciences. A well made concept map grows within a ''context frame'' defined by an explicit "focus question," while a mind map has branches radiating out from a central picture.

另一個概念圖與心智圖的差別，是兩者繪製時速度與自發性的不同。心智圖反映心中所想的。而概念圖被認為應該是現實(抽象上)的概念地圖或系統。

=== External links ===
*[http://ltsnpsy.york.ac.uk/conceptmapping/ Concept Mapping Website]
* [http://www.logo.com/twp/teaching_resources.html Free Concept Mapping Resources] to help teachers introduce young children to the ideas of Concept Mapping.
*[http://wiki.conceptmapping.org/ Wiki dedicated to conceptmapping]
*[http://users.edte.utwente.nl/lanzing/cm_home.htm Concept Mapping Homepage by Jan Lanzing]
*[http://cmap.coginst.uwf.edu/info/printer.html "The Theory Underlying Concept Maps and How To Construct Them"], Joseph D. Novak, Cornell University 
*[http://www.pavonerisorse.to.it/cacrt/mappe/ Italian Site on the Concept Mapping use in the school, by Marco Guastavigna]
*[http://www.graphic.org/concept.html Concept Mapping at the Graphic Organizer]
*[http://cmap.ihmc.us Institute for Human and Machine Cognition - Free Concept Map Tool]
*[http://www.ericdigests.org/1998-1/concept.htm Concept Mapping: A Graphical System for Understanding the Relationship between Concepts] - From the ERIC Clearinghouse on Information and Technology.

==== Concept mapping software ====
* [http://www.mind-mapping.org Software for information organisation] A very complete list of mind mapping/concept mapping software.

==== Freely available software====
There are several good freely available pieces of software that allow the creation of concept maps.
* [http://cmap.ihmc.us/download IHMC CmapTools] is a multiplatform freeware
* [http://www.compendiuminstitute.org/ Compendium] is a freeware concept mapper with database backend, written in Java
* [http://www.conzilla.org/ Conzilla] is a GNU GPL-licenced concept mapper written in Java
* [http://sourceforge.net/projects/tuftsvue/ VUE] is a desktop concept mapping tool developed under a grant from the Mellon Foundation.  Written in Java, it runs on a variety of platforms.

==== Proprietary software====
There are many pieces of [[proprietary software]] (in alphabetical order) that allow the creation of concept maps.
* [http://www.topicscape.com/ 3D Topicscape] takes mind mapping and concept mapping into 3D with flying and zooming.
* [http://www.aibase-cs.com Aibase] maps combine colorful trees, concept maps, tables and more.
* [http://web.singnet.com.sg/~axon2000 Axon Idea Processor] is a Windows program developed in Prolog.
* [http://www.conceptdraw.com/en/products/cd5/main.php ConceptDraw] is cross-platform software
* [http://www.ConceptSystems.com Concept Systems Global] Sophisticated online group concept mapping, collaboration, and consensus development.
* [http://www.lets-focus.com/index.php?action=show&language=en&page=1 let's focus] Concept mapping and general diagramming, as well as visual metaphors and knowledge maps 
* [http://www.matterandmotion.com First Diagramming] Concept mapping (and general diagramming) for Windows Mobile and SmartPhone devices
* [[Inspiration Software]] develops and publishes visual learning tools used for concept mapping, diagramming and webbing. [http://www.inspiration.com].
* [http://www.moresophy.com/networker/homepage/TopicPage.jsp?id=02t4o34l5106&language=en L4 Modeller] is a graphical modeling environment as a modular component within the [[Knowledge management|KM]] platform L4 Semantic NetWorking of moresophy.
* [http://www.sebastian-krauss.de/software/ MyMind] is another Mac-OS-X-based concept/mind mapping tool.
* [http://nelements.org Nelements KOS] 3d concept mapping tool.
* [http://www.omnigroup.com/applications/omnigraffle/ OmniGraffle] is a Mac-OS-X-based concept mapper.
* [[PAUX]] PAUX is software to develop, manage and publicize dynamic [[Mass customization|individualized]] content by linking [[Learning object metadata|reusable]] [[semantic]] content objects [[semantic]]ally. These objects are to make knowledge available as [[wiktionary:filter|filter]]able [[content]] for [[website]]s, [[Semantic Wiki]], detailed-[[Evaluation|evaluated]] eLearning and individualized [[print media]]. The [[data model]] is a multi[[dimension]]al concept map.
* [http://www.semanticresearch.com/ Semantica] is a Java-based concept mapping tool.
* [http://www.smartideas.com SMART Ideas Software] adds depth to visual learning with multilevel concept maps.
* [http://www.strategictransitions.com/aboutsupport.htm Strategic Transitions:] ''(Higher education '''[[Tactical Operations Center|TOC]]''' templates)''
* [http://www.logo.com/cat/view/thinking-pictures.html Thinking with Pictures] is commercial highly visual model mapping software for children running on MS Windows.